Biologically

Biology is a natural science that is concerned with the study of life, its various forms and its function, how these organisms interact with each other and with the surrounding environment. The word biology in Greek is made up of two words: bio (βίος) meaning life. And loggia (-λογία) means science or study. Biology: the similarity of vegetation and animal cover on the edges of the African and American states, and the existence of the same fossil.

Branches of biology
Biology is an ancient science thousands of years old and modern biology began in the nineteenth century. This science has multiple branches. Among them are:

Anatomy
Botany
Biochemia
Biogeography
Biofisia
Cytology or cell science
Ecology or environmental science

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Contents
Preface xiii
Preface to Molecular Biology in Histopathology xv
List of Contributors xvii
1 Blotting Techniques: Methodology and Applications 1
Fiona Watson and C. Simon Herrington
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Blotting techniques 1
1.3 References 15
2 In-situ Hybridisation in Histopathology 19
Gerald Niedobitek and Hermann Herbst
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Experimental conditions 20
2.3 Probes and labels 23
2.4 Controls and pitfalls 27
2.5 Double-labelling 29
2.6 Increasing the sensitivity of ISH 31
2.7 What we do in our laboratories 33
2.8 Applications of ISH: examples 35
2.9 Perspective 39
2.10 References 40
3 DNA Flow Cytometry 49
M.G. Ormerod
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Definitions and terms 49
3.3 Dye used for DNA analysis 50
3.4 Sample preparation for DNA analysis 52
viii CONTENTS
3.5 Analysis of the DNA histogram 53
3.6 Quality control 53
3.7 Computer analysis of the DNA histogram 55
3.8 Multiparametric measurement 57
3.9 Acknowledgements 59
3.10 References 59
4 Interphase Cytogenetics 61
Sara A. Dyer and Jonathan J. Waters
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Interphase cytogenetics 62
4.3 Applications 67
4.4 Conclusion 76
4.5 References 77
5 Oncogenes 79
Fiona Macdonald
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Identification of the oncogenes 79
5.3 Functions of the proto-oncogenes 80
5.4 Mechanism of oncogene activation 89
5.5 Oncogenes in colorectal cancer 91
5.6 Oncogenes in breast cancer 94
5.7 Oncogenes in lung cancer 95
5.8 Oncogenes in haematological malignancies 96
5.9 Other cancers 99
5.10 Conclusion 100
5.11 References 100
6 Molecular and Immunological Aspects of Cell Proliferation 105
Karl Baumforth and John Crocker
6.1 The cell cycle and its importance in clinical pathology 105
6.2 Molecular control of the cell cycle 108
6.3 Cell cycle control 111
6.4 The cell cycle and cancer 112
6.5 Immunocytochemical markers of proliferating cells 115
6.6 References 133
6.7 Further Reading 135
7 Interphase Nucleolar Organiser Regions in Tumour Pathology 137
Massimo Derenzini, Davide Trer´e, Marie-Fran¸coise O’Donohue and
Dominique Ploton
CONTENTS ix
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 The AgNORs 138
7.3 NOR silver-staining 142
7.4 Quantitative AgNOR analysis 145
7.5 AgNORs as a parameter of the level of cell proliferation 146
7.6 Application of the AgNOR technique to tumour pathology 147
7.7 What future for AgNORs in tumour pathology? 151
7.8 References 152
8 Apoptosis and Cell Senescence 153
Lee B. Jordan and David J. Harrison
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 Apoptosis 153
8.3 Cell senescence 174
8.4 Summary 178
8.5 References 179
9 The Polymerase Chain Reaction 193
Timothy Diss
9.1 Introduction 193
9.2 Principles 194
9.3 Analysis of products 197
9.4 RT-PCR 199
9.5 Quantitative PCR 200
9.6 DNA and RNA extraction 200
9.7 Correlation of the PCR with morphology 201
9.8 Problems 202
9.9 Applications 202
9.10 Diagnostic applications 203
9.11 Infectious diseases 209
9.12 Identity 209
9.13 The future 210
9.14 References 210
9.15 Online information 212

Biology
Human biology
Who is the founder of biology?
The importance of biology
Areas of work in the field of biology
Theories of biology
Research on biology for the first grade of secondary school
Human biology