Biologically

Biology is a natural science that is concerned with the study of life, its various forms and its function, how these organisms interact with each other and with the surrounding environment. The word biology in Greek is made up of two words: bio (βίος) meaning life. And loggia (-λογία) means science or study. Biology: the similarity of vegetation and animal cover on the edges of the African and American states, and the existence of the same fossil.

Branches of biology
Biology is an ancient science thousands of years old and modern biology began in the nineteenth century. This science has multiple branches. Among them are:

Anatomy
Botany
Biochemia
Biogeography
Biofisia
Cytology or cell science
Ecology or environmental science

نبذه عن الكتاب:

PART I: HISTORICAL AND FUNDAMENTAL INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1: Protein Biosynthesis: Summary and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 2: Messenger RNA and the Genetic Code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1. Discovery of mRNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2. Deciphering the Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3. Some Features of the Code Dictionary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4. Deviations from the Universal Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5. Structure of mRNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.1. Primary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.2. Functional Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5.3. Folding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6. Messenger Ribonucleoproteins of Higher Eukaryotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 3: Transfer RNA and Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1. Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2. Structure of tRNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1. Primary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.2. Secondary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.3. Tertiary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3. Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4. Aminoacylation of tRNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5. Specificity of tRNA Aminoacylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5.1. Specificity for Amino Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5.2. Specificity for tRNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5.3. Specific Modifications of Aminoacyl Residue after Aminoacylation . 42
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 4: Ribosomes and Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1. First Observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2. Localization of Ribosomes in the Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Ribosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4. Sequential Readout of mRNA by Ribosomes; Polyribosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5. Stages of Translation: Initiation, Elongation, and Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.6. Chemical Reactions and Overall Energy Balance of Protein Biosynthesis . . . . 51
4.7. Cell-free Translation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
PART II: STRUCTURE OF THE RIBOSOME
Chapter 5: Morphology of the Ribosome
by Victor D. Vasiliev and Alexander S. Spirin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1. Size, Appearance, and Subdivision into Subunits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2. Small Subunit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Biology
Human biology
Who is the founder of biology?
The importance of biology
Areas of work in the field of biology
Theories of biology
Research on biology for the first grade of secondary school
Human biology